{"id":777,"date":"2024-09-25T09:32:51","date_gmt":"2024-09-25T09:32:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/?page_id=777"},"modified":"2024-11-12T15:41:56","modified_gmt":"2024-11-12T15:41:56","slug":"","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.lpgp-wp1.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/en\/source-denergie-pour-la-fabrication-additive-haute-energie\/","title":{"rendered":"Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing","raw":"Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\" style=\"font-style:normal;font-weight:300\">Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-lightgrey-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-lightgrey-background-color has-background\"\/>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-default has-light-background-background-color has-background has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-container-core-group-is-layout-8 wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" style=\"padding-top:60px;padding-bottom:60px;padding-left:0\">\n<p class=\"has-secondary-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-8df229d478309c382c0992e5b2bc01b9\"><strong>CONTACT&nbsp;: TIBERIU MINEA<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>nergy management is a priority these days. The same applies to additive manufacturing (AM), which is seen as an integral part of the 4th industrial revolution. The Investissements d&#8217;Avenir programme has supported this area of research since 2015 and continues to do so.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Our laboratory has invested heavily in research into high-energy AF, particularly processes based on metal powder beds and focusing on ceramics. At Plateau de Saclay level, the LPGP is a partner in the Strategic Research Initiative (SRI) Paris-Saclay Additive Manufacturing (FAPS). At national level, the laboratory is involved in the HEAD Scientific Interest Group (GIS) for &#8220;High Energy in Additive Manufacturing&#8221;, led by the CNRS, and above all in the &#8220;Energy Sources&#8221; working group, which it leads alongside the PIMM. We are also involved in the AMLA research group.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It has been shown that the amount of energy applied to the material determines the quality of the solid resulting from the fusion of the powders, as well as the efficiency of the FA process. Precise adjustment and shaping of the beam are the prerequisites for achieving a stable melting regime, with little material loss (evaporation), good volume melting (absence of porosities), and a reduced level of residual stress.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The research activities carried out in the laboratory concern the two energy sources currently used:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>electrons<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>and<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>laser<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The problems associated with the use of electron beams in AF are numerous and range from 3D simulation of the beam to electron-matter interaction, or from beam shaping to transverse energy characterisation. Particular attention has been paid to modelling electron emission &#8211; also known as field-assisted thermionic emission [REF 1]. It should be noted that almost all the electron guns used in AF produce the electron beam by vacuum thermo-emission. The specificity of this beam compared to others of the same type (e.g. SEM &#8211; Scanning Electron Microscopy, TEM &#8211; Transmission Electron Microscopy) consists of an extreme charge density, as the current can reach 100 mA (1000 to 100,000 times greater than that used for SEM or TEM, respectively) for an acceleration voltage of around 50 kV and a focal spot of the order of 100 \u00b5m in diameter. This corresponds to a current density of 1 kA\/cm<sup>2<\/sup>! For this reason, space charge effects are very important, and it is difficult to focus such beams.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The self-coherent simulation of such a beam over longitudinal dimensions of the order of 1 m is a challenge. The electrostatic effect of the relativistic electrons making up the beam must be taken into account, and the problem must be dealt with in all three spatial dimensions &#8211; a condition imposed by the complex configurations of the focusing, deflection and correction (astigmatism) coils.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Beam characterisation is also problematic because of the high beam current. However, we have successfully set up a means of measuring and reconstructing the complete profile of the beam as it interacts with the surface.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A serious limitation of electron-beam FA processes is the upwelling of powders in the gun, which is induced by Coulombic repulsion between the powder grains (~50 \u00b5m in size) if the beam charge is not effectively evacuated towards the mass (the so-called &#8220;smokes&#8221; effect). For this purpose, we proposed the use of a linear radio-frequency discharge with a special configuration, shown in Figure 1 [REF 2 &#8211; 4].okes&nbsp;\u00bb en anglais). Nous avons propos\u00e9 pour cela l\u2019emploi d\u2019une d\u00e9charge radio-fr\u00e9quence lin\u00e9ique de configuration particuli\u00e8re, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9e en Figure 1 [REF 2 &#8211; 4].<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"768\" height=\"592\" src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-778\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.lpgp-wp1.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee.png 768w, https:\/\/www.lpgp-wp1.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee-300x231.png 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 1 &#8211; <\/em>Images of a linear radiofrequency plasma produced in Ar at different<br> pressures to neutralise and preheat the metal powder before melting <br>[REF 2].<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Finally, the deposition of energy by energetic electrons in solid matter has been modelled for both electron beams and laser beams.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For the laser source, particular attention has been paid to the absorption of energy by super-reflective materials such as Cu, Ag, Au, etc. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, and the results are summarised below. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, the most effective of which exploits surface coating with an ultra-thin layer (25 to 50 nm) of carbon. Absorption at 1 \u00b5m drops from 99% to around 30% (Figure 2 &#8211; [REF 5]).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For more details, see the &#8220;deposition of ultra-thin layers and nanoparticles&#8221; section.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-nowrap is-layout-flex wp-container-core-group-is-layout-7 wp-block-group-is-layout-flex\">\n<div style=\"height:100px;width:143px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer wp-container-content-2\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"768\" height=\"479\" src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-779\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.lpgp-wp1.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1.png 768w, https:\/\/www.lpgp-wp1.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1-300x187.png 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 2&nbsp;:  Example of destructive interference using a carbon layer of around <br>50 nm on a copper surface with a roughness of several \u00b5m. Conformal <br>deposition was achieved by DC magnetron. [REF 5]<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignfull has-background has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" style=\"background-color:#e5e9ec;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small)\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-3 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\" style=\"padding-right:0;padding-left:0\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-center is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>[REF 1] B. Seznec, T. Minea, Ph. Test\u00e9, Ph. Dessainte, G. Maynard &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br><em>Theoretical Treatment of Electron Emission and Related Phenomena<\/em>&#8211; ISBN: 978-3-030-98418-2\/485780_1, Springer-Nature, 2022<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[REF 2] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\">S. Alhomsi, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers, T.Minea<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\"><em>Experimental and numerical study of a novel configuration of Radio-Frequency Capacitive Coupled Plasma<br><\/em>2021 J. Appl. Phys. <strong>130<\/strong>, 123302 (2021); doi: 10.1063\/5.0060781<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[REF 3] T. Minea, G. Walrand, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers &#8211;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage pour appareil de fabrication additive &nbsp;&nbsp; <\/em>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Heating Device For Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53017 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079773A1\u00b72019-10-11<br>PCT\/FR2019\/050808 filled 05.04.2019 \u2013 delivered 18.03.2022 FR3079773<br>&nbsp;issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193298 A1<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[REF 4] T. Minea, G. Walrand, C. Ballage, D. Ludin, T. Petty &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage a confinement magn\u00e9tique pour appareil de fabrication additive s\u00e9lective<br>Magnetic Confinement Heating Device For Selective Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53031 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079775A1\u00b72019-10-11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>PCT International Application n\u00b0 PCT\/FR2019\/050809 filled 05 April 2019 \u2013 delivered 26.11.2021 FR3079775; issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193299 A1<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[REF 5] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">A. Crespi, Ch. Ballage, M-C Hugon, D. Lundin, <u>T. Minea<br><\/u><em>The role of amorphous nanocrystalline carbon film in the light interference of flexible copper foils<\/em><\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">ACS Appl. Electron. Mater., 4, (2) (2022) 576\u2013584, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<main class=\"wp-block-group alignfull site-content has-primary-background-color has-background has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" style=\"margin-top:0;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large)\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-default is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div style=\"height:32px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-4 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column has-white-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-4af94e36aa5113a79b738bf7e0bf9d03 is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" 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(max-width: 712px) 100vw, 712px\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/main>\n","protected":false,"raw":"<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":1,\"style\":{\"typography\":{\"fontStyle\":\"normal\",\"fontWeight\":\"300\"}}} -->\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\" style=\"font-style:normal;font-weight:300\">Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing<\/h1>\n<!-- \/wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator {\"backgroundColor\":\"lightgrey\"} -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-lightgrey-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-lightgrey-background-color has-background\"\/>\n<!-- \/wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"60px\",\"left\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"60px\"}}},\"backgroundColor\":\"light-background\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-default has-light-background-background-color has-background\" style=\"padding-top:60px;padding-bottom:60px;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:paragraph {\"style\":{\"elements\":{\"link\":{\"color\":{\"text\":\"var:preset|color|secondary\"}}}},\"textColor\":\"secondary\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-secondary-color has-text-color has-link-color\"><strong>CONTACT&nbsp;: TIBERIU MINEA<\/strong><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>nergy management is a priority these days. The same applies to additive manufacturing (AM), which is seen as an integral part of the 4th industrial revolution. The Investissements d'Avenir programme has supported this area of research since 2015 and continues to do so.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Our laboratory has invested heavily in research into high-energy AF, particularly processes based on metal powder beds and focusing on ceramics. At Plateau de Saclay level, the LPGP is a partner in the Strategic Research Initiative (SRI) Paris-Saclay Additive Manufacturing (FAPS). At national level, the laboratory is involved in the HEAD Scientific Interest Group (GIS) for \"High Energy in Additive Manufacturing\", led by the CNRS, and above all in the \"Energy Sources\" working group, which it leads alongside the PIMM. We are also involved in the AMLA research group.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It has been shown that the amount of energy applied to the material determines the quality of the solid resulting from the fusion of the powders, as well as the efficiency of the FA process. Precise adjustment and shaping of the beam are the prerequisites for achieving a stable melting regime, with little material loss (evaporation), good volume melting (absence of porosities), and a reduced level of residual stress.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The research activities carried out in the laboratory concern the two energy sources currently used:<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>electrons<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>and<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>laser<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The problems associated with the use of electron beams in AF are numerous and range from 3D simulation of the beam to electron-matter interaction, or from beam shaping to transverse energy characterisation. Particular attention has been paid to modelling electron emission - also known as field-assisted thermionic emission [REF 1]. It should be noted that almost all the electron guns used in AF produce the electron beam by vacuum thermo-emission. The specificity of this beam compared to others of the same type (e.g. SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy, TEM - Transmission Electron Microscopy) consists of an extreme charge density, as the current can reach 100 mA (1000 to 100,000 times greater than that used for SEM or TEM, respectively) for an acceleration voltage of around 50 kV and a focal spot of the order of 100 \u00b5m in diameter. This corresponds to a current density of 1 kA\/cm<sup>2<\/sup>! For this reason, space charge effects are very important, and it is difficult to focus such beams.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The self-coherent simulation of such a beam over longitudinal dimensions of the order of 1 m is a challenge. The electrostatic effect of the relativistic electrons making up the beam must be taken into account, and the problem must be dealt with in all three spatial dimensions - a condition imposed by the complex configurations of the focusing, deflection and correction (astigmatism) coils.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Beam characterisation is also problematic because of the high beam current. However, we have successfully set up a means of measuring and reconstructing the complete profile of the beam as it interacts with the surface.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A serious limitation of electron-beam FA processes is the upwelling of powders in the gun, which is induced by Coulombic repulsion between the powder grains (~50 \u00b5m in size) if the beam charge is not effectively evacuated towards the mass (the so-called \"smokes\" effect). For this purpose, we proposed the use of a linear radio-frequency discharge with a special configuration, shown in Figure 1 [REF 2 - 4].okes&nbsp;\u00bb en anglais). Nous avons propos\u00e9 pour cela l\u2019emploi d\u2019une d\u00e9charge radio-fr\u00e9quence lin\u00e9ique de configuration particuli\u00e8re, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9e en Figure 1 [REF 2 - 4].<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":778,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\",\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-778\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 1 - <\/em>Images of a linear radiofrequency plasma produced in Ar at different<br> pressures to neutralise and preheat the metal powder before melting <br>[REF 2].<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finally, the deposition of energy by energetic electrons in solid matter has been modelled for both electron beams and laser beams.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the laser source, particular attention has been paid to the absorption of energy by super-reflective materials such as Cu, Ag, Au, etc. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, and the results are summarised below. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, the most effective of which exploits surface coating with an ultra-thin layer (25 to 50 nm) of carbon. Absorption at 1 \u00b5m drops from 99% to around 30% (Figure 2 - [REF 5]).<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For more details, see the \"deposition of ultra-thin layers and nanoparticles\" section.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"flexWrap\":\"nowrap\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><!-- wp:spacer {\"width\":\"143px\",\"style\":{\"layout\":{\"flexSize\":\"143px\",\"selfStretch\":\"fixed\"}}} -->\n<div style=\"height:100px;width:143px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":779,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-779\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 2&nbsp;:  Example of destructive interference using a carbon layer of around <br>50 nm on a copper surface with a roughness of several \u00b5m. Conformal <br>deposition was achieved by DC magnetron. [REF 5]<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"metadata\":{\"categories\":[\"text\"],\"patternName\":\"wpzoom\/section-with-2-columns\",\"name\":\"Section with 2 columns\"},\"align\":\"full\",\"style\":{\"color\":{\"background\":\"#e5e9ec\"},\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\",\"bottom\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}},\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignfull has-background\" style=\"background-color:#e5e9ec;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small)\"><!-- wp:columns {\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"right\":\"0\",\"left\":\"0\"},\"blockGap\":{\"left\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\" style=\"padding-right:0;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:column {\"verticalAlignment\":\"center\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-center\"><!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 1] B. Seznec, T. Minea, Ph. Test\u00e9, Ph. Dessainte, G. Maynard &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br><em>Theoretical Treatment of Electron Emission and Related Phenomena<\/em>- ISBN: 978-3-030-98418-2\/485780_1, Springer-Nature, 2022<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 2] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\">S. Alhomsi, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers, T.Minea<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\"><em>Experimental and numerical study of a novel configuration of Radio-Frequency Capacitive Coupled Plasma<br><\/em>2021 J. Appl. Phys. <strong>130<\/strong>, 123302 (2021); doi: 10.1063\/5.0060781<\/a><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 3] T. Minea, G. Walrand, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers -&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage pour appareil de fabrication additive &nbsp;&nbsp; <\/em>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Heating Device For Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53017 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079773A1\u00b72019-10-11<br>PCT\/FR2019\/050808 filled 05.04.2019 \u2013 delivered 18.03.2022 FR3079773<br>&nbsp;issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193298 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 4] T. Minea, G. Walrand, C. Ballage, D. Ludin, T. Petty &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage a confinement magn\u00e9tique pour appareil de fabrication additive s\u00e9lective<br>Magnetic Confinement Heating Device For Selective Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53031 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079775A1\u00b72019-10-11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>PCT International Application n\u00b0 PCT\/FR2019\/050809 filled 05 April 2019 \u2013 delivered 26.11.2021 FR3079775; issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193299 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 5] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">A. Crespi, Ch. Ballage, M-C Hugon, D. Lundin, <u>T. Minea<br><\/u><em>The role of amorphous nanocrystalline carbon film in the light interference of flexible copper foils<\/em><\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">ACS Appl. Electron. Mater., 4, (2) (2022) 576\u2013584, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520<\/a><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:column --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:columns --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"tagName\":\"main\",\"metadata\":{\"categories\":[\"featured\"],\"patternName\":\"inspiro\/section-with-text\",\"name\":\"Section with text\"},\"align\":\"full\",\"className\":\"site-content\",\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"margin\":{\"top\":\"0\"},\"padding\":{\"top\":\"var:preset|spacing|x-large\",\"bottom\":\"var:preset|spacing|x-large\"}}},\"backgroundColor\":\"primary\",\"layout\":{\"inherit\":true,\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<main class=\"wp-block-group alignfull site-content has-primary-background-color has-background\" style=\"margin-top:0;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large)\"><!-- wp:group {\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"default\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group 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class=\"wp-block-heading has-white-color has-text-color\">SOCIAL NETWORKS<\/h3>\n<!-- \/wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator {\"className\":\"is-style-wide\",\"backgroundColor\":\"white\"} -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-white-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-white-background-color has-background is-style-wide\"\/>\n<!-- \/wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:social-links -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-social-links\"><!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"https:\/\/fr.linkedin.com\/company\/l-p-g-p\",\"service\":\"linkedin\"} \/-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"x.com\/@lpgp_idf\",\"service\":\"x\"} \/-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"https:\/\/social.sciences.re\/@lpgp\",\"service\":\"mastodon\"} \/--><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:social-links -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"flexWrap\":\"nowrap\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><!-- wp:image {\"id\":536,\"width\":\"114px\",\"height\":\"auto\",\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"http:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/LOGO_CNRS_BLANC-1024x1024.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-536\" style=\"width:114px;height:auto\"\/><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":535,\"width\":\"223px\",\"height\":\"auto\",\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"http:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Logotype-UPSaclay_BLANC.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-535\" style=\"width:223px;height:auto\"\/><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:column --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:columns --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/main>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->"},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false,"raw":""},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_en_post_content":"<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":1,\"style\":{\"typography\":{\"fontStyle\":\"normal\",\"fontWeight\":\"300\"}}} -->\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\" style=\"font-style:normal;font-weight:300\">Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing<\/h1>\n<!-- \/wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator {\"backgroundColor\":\"lightgrey\"} -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-lightgrey-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-lightgrey-background-color has-background\"\/>\n<!-- \/wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"60px\",\"left\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"60px\"}}},\"backgroundColor\":\"light-background\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-default has-light-background-background-color has-background\" style=\"padding-top:60px;padding-bottom:60px;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:paragraph {\"style\":{\"elements\":{\"link\":{\"color\":{\"text\":\"var:preset|color|secondary\"}}}},\"textColor\":\"secondary\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-secondary-color has-text-color has-link-color\"><strong>CONTACT&nbsp;: TIBERIU MINEA<\/strong><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>nergy management is a priority these days. The same applies to additive manufacturing (AM), which is seen as an integral part of the 4th industrial revolution. The Investissements d'Avenir programme has supported this area of research since 2015 and continues to do so.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Our laboratory has invested heavily in research into high-energy AF, particularly processes based on metal powder beds and focusing on ceramics. At Plateau de Saclay level, the LPGP is a partner in the Strategic Research Initiative (SRI) Paris-Saclay Additive Manufacturing (FAPS). At national level, the laboratory is involved in the HEAD Scientific Interest Group (GIS) for \"High Energy in Additive Manufacturing\", led by the CNRS, and above all in the \"Energy Sources\" working group, which it leads alongside the PIMM. We are also involved in the AMLA research group.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>It has been shown that the amount of energy applied to the material determines the quality of the solid resulting from the fusion of the powders, as well as the efficiency of the FA process. Precise adjustment and shaping of the beam are the prerequisites for achieving a stable melting regime, with little material loss (evaporation), good volume melting (absence of porosities), and a reduced level of residual stress.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The research activities carried out in the laboratory concern the two energy sources currently used:<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>electrons<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>and<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>laser<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The problems associated with the use of electron beams in AF are numerous and range from 3D simulation of the beam to electron-matter interaction, or from beam shaping to transverse energy characterisation. Particular attention has been paid to modelling electron emission - also known as field-assisted thermionic emission [REF 1]. It should be noted that almost all the electron guns used in AF produce the electron beam by vacuum thermo-emission. The specificity of this beam compared to others of the same type (e.g. SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy, TEM - Transmission Electron Microscopy) consists of an extreme charge density, as the current can reach 100 mA (1000 to 100,000 times greater than that used for SEM or TEM, respectively) for an acceleration voltage of around 50 kV and a focal spot of the order of 100 \u00b5m in diameter. This corresponds to a current density of 1 kA\/cm<sup>2<\/sup>! For this reason, space charge effects are very important, and it is difficult to focus such beams.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>The self-coherent simulation of such a beam over longitudinal dimensions of the order of 1 m is a challenge. The electrostatic effect of the relativistic electrons making up the beam must be taken into account, and the problem must be dealt with in all three spatial dimensions - a condition imposed by the complex configurations of the focusing, deflection and correction (astigmatism) coils.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Beam characterisation is also problematic because of the high beam current. However, we have successfully set up a means of measuring and reconstructing the complete profile of the beam as it interacts with the surface.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>A serious limitation of electron-beam FA processes is the upwelling of powders in the gun, which is induced by Coulombic repulsion between the powder grains (~50 \u00b5m in size) if the beam charge is not effectively evacuated towards the mass (the so-called \"smokes\" effect). For this purpose, we proposed the use of a linear radio-frequency discharge with a special configuration, shown in Figure 1 [REF 2 - 4].okes&nbsp;\u00bb en anglais). Nous avons propos\u00e9 pour cela l\u2019emploi d\u2019une d\u00e9charge radio-fr\u00e9quence lin\u00e9ique de configuration particuli\u00e8re, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9e en Figure 1 [REF 2 - 4].<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":778,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\",\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-778\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 1 - <\/em>Images of a linear radiofrequency plasma produced in Ar at different<br> pressures to neutralise and preheat the metal powder before melting <br>[REF 2].<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Finally, the deposition of energy by energetic electrons in solid matter has been modelled for both electron beams and laser beams.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For the laser source, particular attention has been paid to the absorption of energy by super-reflective materials such as Cu, Ag, Au, etc. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, and the results are summarised below. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this, the most effective of which exploits surface coating with an ultra-thin layer (25 to 50 nm) of carbon. Absorption at 1 \u00b5m drops from 99% to around 30% (Figure 2 - [REF 5]).<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>For more details, see the \"deposition of ultra-thin layers and nanoparticles\" section.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"flexWrap\":\"nowrap\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><!-- wp:spacer {\"width\":\"143px\",\"style\":{\"layout\":{\"flexSize\":\"143px\",\"selfStretch\":\"fixed\"}}} -->\n<div style=\"height:100px;width:143px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":779,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-779\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 2&nbsp;:  Example of destructive interference using a carbon layer of around <br>50 nm on a copper surface with a roughness of several \u00b5m. Conformal <br>deposition was achieved by DC magnetron. [REF 5]<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"metadata\":{\"categories\":[\"text\"],\"patternName\":\"wpzoom\/section-with-2-columns\",\"name\":\"Section with 2 columns\"},\"align\":\"full\",\"style\":{\"color\":{\"background\":\"#e5e9ec\"},\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\",\"bottom\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}},\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignfull has-background\" style=\"background-color:#e5e9ec;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small)\"><!-- wp:columns {\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"right\":\"0\",\"left\":\"0\"},\"blockGap\":{\"left\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\" style=\"padding-right:0;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:column {\"verticalAlignment\":\"center\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-center\"><!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 1] B. Seznec, T. Minea, Ph. Test\u00e9, Ph. Dessainte, G. Maynard &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br><em>Theoretical Treatment of Electron Emission and Related Phenomena<\/em>- ISBN: 978-3-030-98418-2\/485780_1, Springer-Nature, 2022<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 2] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\">S. Alhomsi, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers, T.Minea<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\"><em>Experimental and numerical study of a novel configuration of Radio-Frequency Capacitive Coupled Plasma<br><\/em>2021 J. Appl. Phys. <strong>130<\/strong>, 123302 (2021); doi: 10.1063\/5.0060781<\/a><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 3] T. Minea, G. Walrand, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers -&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage pour appareil de fabrication additive &nbsp;&nbsp; <\/em>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Heating Device For Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53017 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079773A1\u00b72019-10-11<br>PCT\/FR2019\/050808 filled 05.04.2019 \u2013 delivered 18.03.2022 FR3079773<br>&nbsp;issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193298 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 4] T. Minea, G. Walrand, C. Ballage, D. Ludin, T. Petty &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage a confinement magn\u00e9tique pour appareil de fabrication additive s\u00e9lective<br>Magnetic Confinement Heating Device For Selective Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53031 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079775A1\u00b72019-10-11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>PCT International Application n\u00b0 PCT\/FR2019\/050809 filled 05 April 2019 \u2013 delivered 26.11.2021 FR3079775; issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193299 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 5] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">A. Crespi, Ch. Ballage, M-C Hugon, D. Lundin, <u>T. Minea<br><\/u><em>The role of amorphous nanocrystalline carbon film in the light interference of flexible copper foils<\/em><\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">ACS Appl. Electron. Mater., 4, (2) (2022) 576\u2013584, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520<\/a><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:column --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:columns --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"tagName\":\"main\",\"metadata\":{\"categories\":[\"featured\"],\"patternName\":\"inspiro\/section-with-text\",\"name\":\"Section with text\"},\"align\":\"full\",\"className\":\"site-content\",\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"margin\":{\"top\":\"0\"},\"padding\":{\"top\":\"var:preset|spacing|x-large\",\"bottom\":\"var:preset|spacing|x-large\"}}},\"backgroundColor\":\"primary\",\"layout\":{\"inherit\":true,\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<main class=\"wp-block-group alignfull site-content has-primary-background-color has-background\" style=\"margin-top:0;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--x-large)\"><!-- wp:group {\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"default\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group 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class=\"wp-block-heading has-white-color has-text-color\">SOCIAL NETWORKS<\/h3>\n<!-- \/wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator {\"className\":\"is-style-wide\",\"backgroundColor\":\"white\"} -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-white-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-white-background-color has-background is-style-wide\"\/>\n<!-- \/wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:social-links -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-social-links\"><!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"https:\/\/fr.linkedin.com\/company\/l-p-g-p\",\"service\":\"linkedin\"} \/-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"x.com\/@lpgp_idf\",\"service\":\"x\"} \/-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"https:\/\/social.sciences.re\/@lpgp\",\"service\":\"mastodon\"} \/--><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:social-links -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"flexWrap\":\"nowrap\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><!-- wp:image {\"id\":536,\"width\":\"114px\",\"height\":\"auto\",\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img src=\"http:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/LOGO_CNRS_BLANC-1024x1024.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-536\" style=\"width:114px;height:auto\"\/><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":535,\"width\":\"223px\",\"height\":\"auto\",\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"http:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Logotype-UPSaclay_BLANC.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-535\" style=\"width:223px;height:auto\"\/><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:column --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:columns --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/main>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->","_en_post_name":"","_en_post_excerpt":"","_en_post_title":"Energy source for high-energy additive manufacturing","_fr_post_content":"<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":1,\"style\":{\"typography\":{\"fontStyle\":\"normal\",\"fontWeight\":\"300\"}}} -->\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\" style=\"font-style:normal;font-weight:300\">SOURCE D\u2019\u00c9NERGIE POUR LA FABRICATION ADDITIVE HAUTE \u00c9NERGIE<\/h1>\n<!-- \/wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:separator {\"backgroundColor\":\"lightgrey\"} -->\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-text-color has-lightgrey-color has-alpha-channel-opacity has-lightgrey-background-color has-background\"\/>\n<!-- \/wp:separator -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"60px\",\"left\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"60px\"}}},\"backgroundColor\":\"light-background\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-default has-light-background-background-color has-background\" style=\"padding-top:60px;padding-bottom:60px;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:paragraph {\"style\":{\"elements\":{\"link\":{\"color\":{\"text\":\"var:preset|color|secondary\"}}}},\"textColor\":\"secondary\"} -->\n<p class=\"has-secondary-color has-text-color has-link-color\"><strong>CONTACT&nbsp;: TIBERIU MINEA<\/strong><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>La gestion de l\u2019\u00e9nergie est de nos jours une priorit\u00e9. Il en va de m\u00eame dans la fabrication additive (FA), consid\u00e9r\u00e9e partie prenante de la 4<sup>\u00e8me<\/sup> r\u00e9volution industrielle. Le programme Investissements d\u2019Avenir a soutenu depuis 2015 cet axe de recherche et le fait encore.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Notre laboratoire s\u2019est investi dans la recherche sur la FA haute \u00e9nergie, particuli\u00e8rement sur les proc\u00e9d\u00e9s sur lit de poudre m\u00e9tallique et tourn\u00e9s vers les c\u00e9ramiques. Au niveau du plateau de Saclay, le LPGP est partenaire de Initiative de Recherche Strat\u00e9gique (IRS) Fabrication Additive Paris-Saclay (FAPS). Au niveau national, le laboratoire est impliqu\u00e9 dans le Groupement d\u2019Int\u00e9r\u00eat Scientifique (GIS) HEAD pour \u00ab&nbsp;Haute Energie en Fabrication Additive&nbsp;\u00bb pilot\u00e9 par le CNRS et surtout dans le groupement de travail sur les \u2018Sources d\u2019\u00e9nergie\u2019 qu\u2019il pilote au c\u00f4t\u00e9 du PIMM. Egalement, nous participons au Groupement de Recherche AMLA.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Concernant l\u2019apport d\u2019\u00e9nergie sur la mati\u00e8re, il a \u00e9t\u00e9 d\u00e9montr\u00e9 qu\u2019il d\u00e9termine la qualit\u00e9 de la mati\u00e8re solide issue de la fusion des poudres tout comme l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 du proc\u00e9d\u00e9 FA. L\u2019ajustement pr\u00e9cis et le fa\u00e7onnage du faisceau sont les pr\u00e9mices pour atteindre un r\u00e9gime stable de fusion, avec peu de pertes de mati\u00e8re (\u00e9vaporation), avec une bonne fusion en volume (absence de porosit\u00e9s), et avec un niveau de contraintes r\u00e9siduelles r\u00e9duit.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Les activit\u00e9s de recherche men\u00e9es au laboratoire concernent les deux sources d\u2019\u00e9nergie couramment utilis\u00e9es&nbsp;:<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>\u00e9lectrons<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>et<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\"><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>laser<\/li>\n<!-- \/wp:list-item --><\/ul>\n<!-- \/wp:list -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Les probl\u00e9matiques li\u00e9s \u00e0 l\u2019emploi des faisceaux d\u2019\u00e9lectrons en FA sont nombreuses et s\u2019\u00e9tendent de la simulation 3D du faisceau \u00e0 l\u2019interaction \u00e9lectron mati\u00e8re, ou de la mise en forme du faisceau \u00e0 sa caract\u00e9risation transverse en \u00e9nergie. Une attention particuli\u00e8re a \u00e9t\u00e9 port\u00e9e \u00e0 la mod\u00e9lisation de l\u2019\u00e9mission \u00e9lectronique \u2013 connue aussi comme l\u2019\u00e9mission thermoionique assist\u00e9e par effet de champ [REF 1]. Notons que la quasi-totalit\u00e9 des canons \u00e0 \u00e9lectrons utilis\u00e9s en FA produisent le faisceau d\u2019\u00e9lectrons par thermo-\u00e9mission sous vide. La sp\u00e9cificit\u00e9 de ce faisceau par rapport \u00e0 d\u2019autres de m\u00eame type (e.g. MEB \u2013 Microscopie Electronique \u00e0 Balayage, MET - Microscopie Electronique \u00e0 Transmission) consiste en une densit\u00e9 de charge extr\u00eame, car le courant peut atteindre 100 mA (1000 \u00e0 100&nbsp;000 fois sup\u00e9rieure \u00e0 celle utilis\u00e9e pour le MEB ou le TEM, respectivement) pour une tension d\u2019acc\u00e9l\u00e9ration de 50 kV environ et une t\u00e2che focale de l\u2019ordre de 100 \u00b5m de diam\u00e8tre. Ceci correspond \u00e0 une densit\u00e9 de courant de 1 kA\/cm<sup>2<\/sup>&nbsp;!!! C\u2019est pour cette raison que les effets de charge d\u2019espace sont tr\u00e8s importants, et qu\u2019il est difficile de focaliser de tels faisceaux.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>La simulation auto-coh\u00e9rente d\u2019un tel faisceau sur des dimensions longitudinales de l\u2019ordre de 1 m est un d\u00e9fi. En effet, il faut n\u00e9cessairement prendre en compte l\u2019effet \u00e9lectrostatique des \u00e9lectrons relativistes composant le faisceau entre eux, et traiter le probl\u00e8me dans les trois dimensions de l\u2019espace \u2013 condition impos\u00e9e par les configurations complexes des bobines de focalisation, de d\u00e9flection et de correction (astigmatisme).<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>La caract\u00e9risation du faisceau est probl\u00e9matique aussi \u00e0 cause du fort courant du faisceau. Toutefois, nous avons mis en place avec succ\u00e8s un moyen de mesure et de reconstruction du profil complet du faisceau en interaction avec la surface.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Une limitation s\u00e9rieuse des proc\u00e9d\u00e9s FA \u00e0 faisceau d\u2019\u00e9lectrons est la remont\u00e9e des poudres dans le canon qui est induite par la r\u00e9pulsion Coulombienne entre les grains de poudre ( taille ~50 \u00b5m) si la charge du faisceau n\u2019est pas efficacement \u00e9vacu\u00e9e vers la masse (effet dit \u00ab&nbsp;smokes&nbsp;\u00bb en anglais). Nous avons propos\u00e9 pour cela l\u2019emploi d\u2019une d\u00e9charge radio-fr\u00e9quence lin\u00e9ique de configuration particuli\u00e8re, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9e en Figure 1 [REF 2 - 4].<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":778,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\",\"align\":\"center\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/52eb5ebe-c42f-4980-afc4-2e7f2db2a9ee.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-778\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 1 - Images d\u2019un plasma lin\u00e9ique radiofr\u00e9quence produit en Ar pour diff\u00e9rentes pressions permettant la neutralisation et le pr\u00e9chauffage de la poudre m\u00e9tallique avant fusion <\/em>[REF 2]<em>.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Enfin, le d\u00e9p\u00f4t d\u2019\u00e9nergie par les \u00e9lectrons \u00e9nerg\u00e9tiques dans la mati\u00e8re solide a \u00e9t\u00e9 mod\u00e9lis\u00e9 \u00e0 la fois pour les faisceaux d\u2019\u00e9lectrons et pour les faisceaux laser.<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pour la source laser, une attention particuli\u00e8re a \u00e9t\u00e9 port\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019absorption de l\u2019\u00e9nergie par des mat\u00e9riaux super-r\u00e9fl\u00e9chissants comme le Cu, Ag, Au, etc. Plusieurs m\u00e9thodes ont \u00e9t\u00e9 propos\u00e9es pour y parvenir et la plus efficace exploite le recouvrement superficiel avec une couche ultramince (25 \u00e0 50 nm) de carbone. L\u2019absorption \u00e0 1 \u00b5m passe de 99% \u00e0 30% environ (Figure 2 - [REF 5]).<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>Pour plus de d\u00e9tails, voir la th\u00e9matique \"<a href=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/?page_id=676\">d\u00e9p\u00f4t de couches ultra-minces et nanoparticules<\/a>\"<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"flexWrap\":\"nowrap\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><!-- wp:spacer {\"width\":\"143px\",\"style\":{\"layout\":{\"flexSize\":\"143px\",\"selfStretch\":\"fixed\"}}} -->\n<div style=\"height:100px;width:143px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"id\":779,\"sizeSlug\":\"full\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img src=\"https:\/\/biblioconf.lpgp.universite-paris-saclay.fr\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/a884065a-4a8a-4b4a-9987-90dd09f4d022-1.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-779\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Figure 2&nbsp;: Exemple d\u2019interf\u00e9rence destructive \u00e0 l\u2019aide d\u2019une couche <br>de carbone de 50 nm environ sur une surface de cuivre de plusieurs \u00b5m de<br> rugosit\u00e9. Le d\u00e9p\u00f4t conforme a \u00e9t\u00e9 r\u00e9alis\u00e9 par magn\u00e9tron DC. [REF 5]<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<!-- \/wp:image --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group --><\/div>\n<!-- \/wp:group -->\n\n<!-- wp:group {\"metadata\":{\"categories\":[\"text\"],\"patternName\":\"wpzoom\/section-with-2-columns\",\"name\":\"Section with 2 columns\"},\"align\":\"full\",\"style\":{\"color\":{\"background\":\"#e5e9ec\"},\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"top\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\",\"bottom\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}},\"layout\":{\"type\":\"constrained\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignfull has-background\" style=\"background-color:#e5e9ec;padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--small)\"><!-- wp:columns {\"style\":{\"spacing\":{\"padding\":{\"right\":\"0\",\"left\":\"0\"},\"blockGap\":{\"left\":\"var:preset|spacing|small\"}}}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\" style=\"padding-right:0;padding-left:0\"><!-- wp:column {\"verticalAlignment\":\"center\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-center\"><!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 1] B. Seznec, T. Minea, Ph. Test\u00e9, Ph. Dessainte, G. Maynard &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br><em>Theoretical Treatment of Electron Emission and Related Phenomena<\/em>- ISBN: 978-3-030-98418-2\/485780_1, Springer-Nature, 2022<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 2] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\">S. Alhomsi, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers, T.Minea<\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0060781\"><em>Experimental and numerical study of a novel configuration of Radio-Frequency Capacitive Coupled Plasma<br><\/em>2021 J. Appl. Phys. <strong>130<\/strong>, 123302 (2021); doi: 10.1063\/5.0060781<\/a><\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 3] T. Minea, G. Walrand, G. Bauville, S. Pasquiers -&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage pour appareil de fabrication additive &nbsp;&nbsp; <\/em>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Heating Device For Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53017 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079773A1\u00b72019-10-11<br>PCT\/FR2019\/050808 filled 05.04.2019 \u2013 delivered 18.03.2022 FR3079773<br>&nbsp;issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193298 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 4] T. Minea, G. Walrand, C. Ballage, D. Ludin, T. Petty &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><em>Dispositif de chauffage a confinement magn\u00e9tique pour appareil de fabrication additive s\u00e9lective<br>Magnetic Confinement Heating Device For Selective Additive Manufacturing Apparatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><\/em>France application, FR 18\/53031 filled 06 April 2018 ; Published FR3079775A1\u00b72019-10-11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>PCT International Application n\u00b0 PCT\/FR2019\/050809 filled 05 April 2019 \u2013 delivered 26.11.2021 FR3079775; issue 10 October 2019 WO 2019193299 A1<\/p>\n<!-- \/wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>[REF 5] <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">A. Crespi, Ch. Ballage, M-C Hugon, D. Lundin, <u>T. Minea<br><\/u><em>The role of amorphous nanocrystalline carbon film in the light interference of flexible copper foils<\/em><\/a><br><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.1c00520\">ACS Appl. Electron. 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